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co-own.htm
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<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN"
"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd">
<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en">
<head>
<title>co-own </title>
<link href=".code/preferred.css" rel="stylesheet" type="text/css"/>
</head>
<body>
<p class='header'>
<a href="_home.htm">Home</a> | <a href="_faq.htm">FAQ</a> | <a href="_thesis.htm">Thesis</a> | <a href="_diary.htm">Diary</a> | <a href="_projects.htm">Projects</a> | <a href="resume.htm">Resume</a> | <a href="_todo.htm">Todo</a> | <a href="_index.htm">Index</a> |<p>
<p class='main'><span class="rel">Related:</span> <a href="citizen owned.htm">citizen owned</a><br/>
<br/>
<a href="title.htm">Title</a> <a href="ide.htm">ide</a>as: "Con<a href="curr.htm">curr</a>ent E<a href="stat.htm">stat</a>e", "E<a href="stat.htm">stat</a>e as the <a href="stat.htm">Stat</a>e", "<a href="own.htm">Own</a> or be <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ed"<br/>
<br/>
Votes weighted by <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership %<br/>
<br/>
Some examples that already occur:<br/>
1.)</small> Some people joint-purchase an RV <small>(Motor Home)</small> so they can <a href="pay.htm">pay</a> only <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>s.<br/>
<br/>
2.)</small> People <a href="use.htm">use</a>d to <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a> vacation homes before the Time-Share industry organized to take that over for the purpose of charging more than <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>.<br/>
<br/>
3.)</small> Co-purchasing an airplane allows the group of <a href="user.htm">user</a>s to share it amongst themselves - usually hiring a pilot to operate it and <a href="pay.htm">pay</a>ing those wages as a <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>, but <a href="real.htm">real</a>izing great savings since <a href="profit.htm">profit</a> is not paid.<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<a href="co-own.htm">Co-own</a>ership allows us to invest in industry that would be out of reach for individual <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers because of financial constraints and the typical inability to fully utilize those Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es.<br/>
<br/>
Capitalists already <a href="use.htm">use</a> the strength of <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a>ership against us when the joint-invest in for-<a href="profit.htm">profit</a> corporations.<br/>
<br/>
Without <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a>ership we must do everything on our <a href="own.htm">own</a> or suffer <a href="pay.htm">pay</a>ing <a href="profit.htm">profit</a> to those who do <a href="own.htm">own</a>.<br/>
<br/>
Capitalists will infiltrate any community we try to establish - just as they <a href="curr.htm">curr</a>ently do - when they buy the <a href="land.htm">land</a>, water rights, <a href="net.htm">net</a><a href="work.htm">work</a>s, restaurants, meeting places, grocery <a href="stor.htm">stor</a>es, shopping malls, farms, factories, etc. that are more efficiently <a href="own.htm">own</a>ed by more than one person.<br/>
<br/>
Once they <a href="own.htm">own</a> that infrastructure, and if we are not "pushing against it" by organizing and <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a>ing for ourselves, then we will be overrun as usual.<br/>
<br/>
Single-<a href="own.htm">own</a>ership is important for Personal <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty, but for as long as we continue to resist solving this problem of <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a>ership will we be at the mercy of those that <a href="use.htm">use</a> it against us.<br/>
<br/>
....<br/>
<br/>
<span class="h2">== Example Studies</span><br/>
There is a special <a href="econ.htm">econ</a>omic case that occurs when the <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er of some Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es <small>(the material Means of <a href="produc.htm">Produc</a>tion)</small> are also the <a href="user.htm">User</a>s of the <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect<small>[ive]</small>s <small>(output, <a href="produc.htm">produc</a>t, purpose)</small> of that <a href="produc.htm">produc</a>tion.<br/>
<br/>
<span class="h4">==== Case 1: Single-<a href="user.htm">User</a>, Single-<a href="own.htm">Own</a>er</span><br/>
INDIVIDUAL <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er of Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es <small>(say an apple tree and 'supporting' <a href="sourc.htm">sourc</a>es such as <a href="land.htm">land</a>, water rights, tools)</small> is the ONLY <a href="user.htm">User</a> of the <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect<small>[ive]</small>s <small>(apples, shade, wood)</small>:<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> This base case is meant to show why <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect <a href="user.htm">User</a>s should be <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>e <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ers.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> The <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er of the Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es <small>(tree, etc.)</small> is also the <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er of the <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect<small>[ive]</small>s <small>(apples, etc.)</small> even before <a href="produc.htm">produc</a>tion is complete.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> The <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er has full control over the <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect<small>[ive]</small>s because he is also the <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er of the Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es. If the <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er doesn't want dangerous chemicals <a href="spray.htm">spray</a>ed, there are no questions asked.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> Abundance for others is not a problem, as the <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er seeks <a href="use.htm">use</a>-value <small>(consumption)</small>, not exchange-value <small>(<a href="profit.htm">profit</a>)</small>.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> The <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er may choose to do any or all of the <a href="work.htm">work</a>.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> The <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er may <a href="pay.htm">pay</a> a <a href="work.htm">Work</a>er to <a href="install.htm">install</a>, maintain, operate the Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es, but the <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er cannot <a href="pay.htm">pay</a> more than <a href="cost.htm">Cost</a>s <small>(wages are a <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>)</small> except as an investment toward future <a href="produc.htm">produc</a>tion <small>(say buying another tree or more <a href="land.htm">land</a> or more water rights or more tools, etc.)</small>.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> Un<a href="employ.htm">employ</a>ment is not a problem, the <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er wants all chores automated away.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ership of Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es is <small>(imperfect)</small> <a href="insur.htm">insur</a>ance that future <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect<small>[ive]</small>s will be met.<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<span class="h4">==== Case 2: Multi-<a href="user.htm">User</a>, Multi-<a href="own.htm">Own</a>er</span><br/>
COLLECTIVE <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ers Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es are SOME of the <a href="user.htm">User</a>s of the <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect<small>[ives]</small>:<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> This most important case covers the <a href="diff.htm">diff</a>iculties of <a href="co-own.htm">Co-Own</a>ership.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> All points of Case 1 apply.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> The <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ers may charge Non-<a href="own.htm">Own</a>ing <a href="user.htm">User</a>s a <a href="pric.htm">pric</a>e above <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>. This may cause the <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ers to seek scarcity of others <small>(destroy all competitors)</small> because reducing competition increases <a href="profit.htm">profit</a>. This is balanced by treating <a href="profit.htm">profit</a> as an investment from the <a href="user.htm">User</a> who paid it.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> Non-<a href="own.htm">Own</a>ing <a href="user.htm">User</a>s do not have control. This is balanced by treating <a href="profit.htm">profit</a> as an investment from the <a href="user.htm">User</a> who paid it. This causes every <a href="user.htm">User</a> to gain <a href="co-own.htm">Co-Own</a>ership in Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es <small>(he now <a href="own.htm">own</a>s a tiny % in some <a href="new.htm">new</a> trees being planted for him and other non-<a href="own.htm">own</a>ing <a href="user.htm">user</a>s that are <a href="pay.htm">pay</a>ing <a href="pric.htm">pric</a>e above <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>)</small>. The ability for <a href="curr.htm">curr</a>ent <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ers to collect <a href="profit.htm">profit</a> against this <a href="user.htm">User</a> in the future <small>(after his investment <a href="start.htm">start</a>s <a href="produc.htm">produc</a>ing)</small> is then reduced because that <a href="user.htm">User</a> will <a href="own.htm">own</a> as many "at-<a href="cost.htm">cost</a>" <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ects <small>(apples)</small> as his % of Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es <small>(tiny slice of the apple orc<a href="hard.htm">hard</a>)</small> <a href="produc.htm">produc</a>es. This may seem insignificant, but it adds up, and 'balances' the system. By understanding <a href="profit.htm">profit</a> to be a <a href="user.htm">User</a>'s investment, we see his 'investments' <small>(<a href="profit.htm">profit</a>)</small> tapers toward zero as he gains <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ership in Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es because that <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>e <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ership also automatically gives him <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ership, and those <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ects are a replacement <small>(competition)</small> for some of what the <a href="curr.htm">curr</a>ent <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ers were selling. As this settles, competition approaches perfection and no <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ects <small>(apples)</small> even need be sold because the Consumers that need them already <a href="own.htm">Own</a> them even before they are <a href="produc.htm">produc</a>ed because of their sufficient <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ership in the <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es of those <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ects. Whew!<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er votes are weighted by their % of <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership in each indivisible Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>e.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> Minor groups who lose a vote may split/fork/divide from the majority. If 80% of the <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ers want the orc<a href="hard.htm">hard</a> <a href="spray.htm">spray</a>ed, the remaining 20% can opt-out by <a href="part.htm">part</a>itioning off a <a href="sect.htm">sect</a>ion of the farm from those chemicals.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> Solutions to voting, granularity and divisibility can be very complicated, and this needs further discussion, but is not specific to <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect <a href="user.htm">User</a>s being <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>e <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ers.<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<span class="h4">==== Case 3: Multi-<a href="user.htm">User</a>, Single-<a href="own.htm">Own</a>er</span><br/>
INDIVIDUAL <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er of Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es is ONE of the <a href="user.htm">User</a>s of the <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect<small>[ives]</small>:<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> This less important case occurs when the <a href="start.htm">start</a>up <small>(<a href="boot.htm">boot</a>ing)</small> <a href="cost.htm">Cost</a>s are small enough for any single <a href="own.htm">own</a>er, or can otherwise be organized as Case 2.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> All points of Case 2 apply.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> Documenting this case is important for observing the transition between 'public' and 'personal' <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership.<br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> The <a href="own.htm">Own</a>er may claim any wage for management or labor he performs while claiming <a href="profit.htm">profit</a> <small>(<a href="pric.htm">pric</a>e above <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>)</small> is zero.<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<span class="h4">==== Case 4: Single-<a href="user.htm">User</a>, Multi-<a href="own.htm">Own</a>er</span><br/>
<span class="bullet">*</span> This is an unlikely case of un<a href="know.htm">know</a>n applicability.<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<span class="h2">== Conclusion</span><br/>
When this is running we will no longer need to "<a href="prop.htm">prop</a>-up" wages because <a href="work.htm">work</a>ers will push them higher through their ability to "hold out" when their consumption is <a href="protect.htm">protect</a>ed when they have <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership in the <a href="sourc.htm">sourc</a>es of their <a href="own.htm">own</a> needs.<br/>
<br/>
Investment from <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect <a href="user.htm">User</a>s <small>(<a href="pric.htm">pric</a>e above <a href="cost.htm">cost</a> or '<a href="profit.htm">profit</a>')</small> is high in the early stages of development, but approaches zero as each citizen <small>(consumer)</small> gains their <a href="own.htm">own</a> percentage of <a href="real.htm">real</a> <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership in the Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es of <a href="produc.htm">produc</a>tion.<br/>
<br/>
One way to approach this is through a legally binding Social Contract that <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ers could apply a to collective Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es so <a href="profit.htm">profit</a> would always be interpreted as <a href="user.htm">User</a> Investment whenever the <a href="produc.htm">produc</a>ts were given, <a href="rent.htm">rent</a>ed, shared, sold or <a href="trad.htm">trad</a>ed.<br/>
<br/>
This inter-<a href="own.htm">own</a>er <a href="trad.htm">Trad</a>e <a href="agree.htm">Agree</a>ment should allow maximum divisibility so any <a href="user.htm">user</a> may opt-out or 'fork' their portion to treat it <a href="diff.htm">diff</a>e<a href="rent.htm">rent</a>ly without needing the approval of all other <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers. For instance, let's say you have gained <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership in beef cattle because you paid <a href="pric.htm">Pric</a>eAbov<a href="ecos.htm">eCos</a>t for hamburgers. You may vote <small>(weighted by your % of <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership)</small> on how ALL those animals are treated as a group, but if you have some special goals that few other <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers would <a href="agree.htm">agree</a> on, you can also *DIVIDE* out a <a href="real.htm">real</a>istic portion from the whole if your <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership is large enough to meet the minimum granularity. So if you want your animals to be fed grass instead of grain, the granularity would be at ''one animal'', since it is impossible to feed <a href="part.htm">part</a> of an animal one diet, and the other portion another... In another case, if you are only concerned about how the meat is <a href="pack.htm">pack</a>aged, then the granularity is much finer, and you should be able to meet those goals - though it would be your responsibility to organize that division and to <a href="pay.htm">pay</a> any extra <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>s <small>(such as wages)</small> required to do any extra <a href="work.htm">work</a>.<br/>
<br/>
Any group of <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a>ers will dis<a href="agree.htm">agree</a> on policy over shared <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty.<br/>
<br/>
Some types of 'contiguous' things, such as roads, sewer, water, electricity, gas lines, etc. need more logistic restrictions in their divisibility.<br/>
<br/>
<a href="profit.htm">Profit</a> is an inverse measure of competition and a direct measure of monopoly. <a href="profit.htm">Profit</a> is the portion of <a href="pric.htm">Pric</a>e, <a href="rent.htm">Rent</a>, Tax or Interest that goes beyond <a href="real.htm">real</a> <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>s. That <a href="profit.htm">profit</a> becomes usury unless it is treated as an investment from the consumer who paid it.<br/>
<br/>
<a href="profit.htm">Profit</a> should be interpreted as a plea for development because it measures consumer dependence. Usury gained against consumers disrespects their natural desire to grow, so hampers true progress.<br/>
<br/>
<a href="profit.htm">Profit</a> collected as a reward for the <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers is s<a href="econ.htm">econ</a>darily troublesome because it inverts the goals of that corporation from abundance and <a href="free.htm">free</a>dom toward scarcity and power.<br/>
<br/>
If your are alone on the is<a href="land.htm">land</a> and 20 more people suddenly arrive, how are 'we' going to decide how to collectively manage the available Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es?<br/>
<br/>
Collective <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership as a body - in-corp-oration is the original and only valid purpose of government.<br/>
<br/>
Citizens and consumers are the same, and should be the <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers for maximum performance, <a href="free.htm">free</a>dom and peace.<br/>
<br/>
Whether you call it a church, a city, a club, commons, community, company, coop, corporation, county, cult... managing collective <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty is <a href="diff.htm">diff</a>icult.<br/>
<br/>
Business and government are separated now only because we understanding that most businesses, especially the larger ones are somehow not fully aligned with the goals of the rest of society. It is the mistreatment of <a href="profit.htm">profit</a> that inverts our original goals of peace and abundance.<br/>
<br/>
<a href="own.htm">Own</a>ers may accidentally squander their inheritance. 1st-world nations are covered with barren and even poisonous plants and mostly worthless animals - no chickens in the yards and the bees are dying.<br/>
<br/>
Originating <a href="own.htm">Own</a>ers hold no special <a href="stat.htm">stat</a>us; each consumer who <a href="pay.htm">pay</a>s more than <a href="cost.htm">cost</a> becomes an inve<a href="stor.htm">stor</a> in Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es to <a href="insur.htm">insur</a>e their <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership of future <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ects.<br/>
<br/>
<a class="ext" href="http://P2PFoundation.net/Category:User_Owned">http://P2PFoundation.net/Category:User_Owned</a><br/>
<br/>
<br/>
<span class="bullet">.</span>...<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
Tenative <a href="prop.htm">prop</a>osal for a "Contract" or some kind of "Terms of Operation" for a business, organization, or even between just two <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers.<br/>
<br/>
<a class="ext" href="http://Wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeshare">Wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeshare</a><br/>
<br/>
<span class="h2">==DEFINITIONS:</span><br/>
<br/>
* The term 'Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es' de<a href="note.htm">note</a>s Capital or <a href="land.htm">Land</a> such as <a href="liv.htm">liv</a>ing organisms, tools, <a href="real.htm">real</a> e<a href="stat.htm">stat</a>e.<br/>
* The term '<a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect' de<a href="note.htm">note</a>s a tangible or ephemeral <a href="produc.htm">produc</a>t, output or purpose of a <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>e such as the harvest from a farm, a ride in a car, the shade of a tree.<br/>
* Ther term 'Type' de<a href="note.htm">note</a>s the class or variety of some thing with infinite potential such as the genetics of an organism, a <a href="compu.htm">compu</a>ter program, video or audio data, the design of a tool.<br/>
* The term 'Instance' de<a href="note.htm">note</a>s a single copy of any Type of thing such as a <a href="liv.htm">liv</a>ing organism, a CD containing a <a href="compu.htm">compu</a>ter program or video/audio data, a physical tool.<br/>
* The term 'Recipient' de<a href="note.htm">note</a>s an entity which receives a good or service. <br/>
<br/>
<span class="h2">==TERMS OF OPERATION</span><br/>
As <a href="own.htm">own</a>er, you may <a href="use.htm">use</a> this <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect Instance for any purpose. If you <a href="trad.htm">trad</a>e, sell, give, lease, <a href="rent.htm">rent</a> or otherwise <a href="mak.htm">mak</a>e this <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect available to a Receipient you must:<br/>
<br/>
1. Accompany that <a href="obj.htm">Obj</a>ect Instance with a paper or digital copy of this <a href="agree.htm">agree</a>ment.<br/>
2. Invest the <a href="diff.htm">diff</a>erence between selling <a href="pric.htm">pric</a>e and <a href="produc.htm">produc</a>tion <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>s in more Physical <a href="sourc.htm">Sourc</a>es.<br/>
3. The investment made in #2 shall vest to the Recipient as <a href="fract.htm">fract</a>ional <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership after ??? <small>(time or condition)</small>?<br/>
<br/>
<br/>
Some resouces to determine how "Common Law" usually effects these arrangements:<br/>
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<a class="ext" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_Ownership">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fractional_Ownership</a> In business, <a href="fract.htm">fract</a>ional <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership is a percentage share of an expensive asset. Shares are sold to individual <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers. A <a href="fract.htm">fract</a>ional <a href="own.htm">own</a>er enjoys priorities and privileges, such as reduced rates, priority access on holidays and income sharing. Typically, a company manages the asset on behalf of the <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers, who <a href="pay.htm">pay</a> monthly/annual fees for the management plus variable <small>(e.g. per-hour, per-day)</small> <a href="use.htm">use</a> fees. For rapidly-depreciating assets, the management company may sell the asset and distribute the proceeds <a href="back.htm">back</a> to the <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers, who can then claim a capital loss and optionally purchase a <a href="fract.htm">fract</a>ion of a <a href="new.htm">new</a> asset.<br/>
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<a class="ext" href="http://1st-of-Pryor.com/co-ownership%20contract.htm">http://1st-of-Pryor.com/co-ownership%20contract.htm</a> This <a href="agree.htm">agree</a>ment is provided to our pilot friends at no <a href="cost.htm">cost</a> and for no consideration. You are welcome to utilize it for whatever purpose you choose. Please <a href="mod.htm">mod</a>ify this <a href="agree.htm">agree</a>ment to suit your <a href="part.htm">part</a>icular situation. However, the First Pryority <a href="bank.htm">Bank</a> of Pryor cannot and will not provide any assurance that the <a href="agree.htm">agree</a>ment is suitable for your situation and we will not provide any warranty or guaranty as to it accuracy, or legal validity. You are electing to <a href="use.htm">use</a> the <a href="agree.htm">agree</a>ment by assuming any risk as to its legal correctness, validity, or consequences.<br/>
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<a class="ext" href="http://AndySirkin.com">http://AndySirkin.com</a> Vacation home <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a>ership <small>(sometimes also <a href="know.htm">know</a>n as <a href="fract.htm">fract</a>ional <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership)</small><br/>
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<a class="ext" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_estate">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_estate</a> A con<a href="curr.htm">curr</a>ent e<a href="stat.htm">stat</a>e or co-tenancy is a concept in <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty law, <a href="part.htm">part</a>icularly derived from the common law of <a href="real.htm">real</a> <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty, which describes the various ways in which <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty can be <a href="own.htm">own</a>ed by more than one person at a given time. The <a href="part.htm">part</a>ies who <a href="own.htm">own</a> <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty jointly are referred to as co-tenants or joint tenants. Most common-law jurisdictions recognize three kinds of con<a href="curr.htm">curr</a>ent e<a href="stat.htm">stat</a>e: tenancy in common, joint tenancy with right of survivorship, and tenancy by the entirety. Many jurisdictions simply refer to a joint tenancy with right of survivorship as a joint tenancy, but a few U.S. <a href="stat.htm">Stat</a>es treat the phrase joint tenancy as synonymous with a tenancy in common.<br/>
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<span class="h4">====Co-tenant</span><br/>
Co-tenants, irrespective of the type of tenancy, share certain rights relative to each other and to the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty, except to the extent they have <a href="mod.htm">mod</a>ified these rights through an <a href="agree.htm">agree</a>ment among themselves:<br/>
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1. Each tenant has an unrestricted right of access to the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty. Where one co-tenant wrongfully excludes another from <a href="mak.htm">mak</a>ing <a href="use.htm">use</a> of the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty, the excluded co-tenant can bring a cause of action for ouster,', and may receive the fair <a href="rent.htm">rent</a>al value of the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty for the time that he was dispossessed.<br/>
2. Each tenant has a right to an accounting of <a href="profit.htm">profit</a>s made from the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty. If the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty generates income such as <a href="rent.htm">rent</a>, each tenant is en<a href="title.htm">title</a>d to a pro-rata share of that income.<br/>
3. Each tenant has a right of contribution for the <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>s of <a href="own.htm">own</a>ing the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty. Co-tenants can be forced to contribute to the <a href="pay.htm">pay</a>ment of expenses such as <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty taxes and mortgages on the entire <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty.<br/>
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Co-tenants do not have any obligation to contribute to any <a href="cost.htm">cost</a>s of repairing or improving the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty. If one co-tenant adds a feature that enhances the value of the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty, that co-tenant has no right to demand that any others share the <a href="cost.htm">cost</a> of adding that feature - even if other co-tenants reap greater <a href="profit.htm">profit</a>s from the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty because of it. However, at <a href="part.htm">part</a>ition, a co-tenant is en<a href="title.htm">title</a>d to <a href="recover.htm">recover</a> the value added by his or her improvements of the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty. Conversely, if the co-tenant's "improvements" decrease the value of the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty, the co-tenant is responsible for those decreases as well.<br/>
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Furthermore, each co-tenant can independently encumber the co-tenant's <a href="own.htm">own</a> share in the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty by taking out a mortgage on that share <small>(although this may effectively convert a joint tenancy to a tenancy in common, as described below)</small>; other co-tenants have no obligation to help <a href="pay.htm">pay</a> a mortgage that only runs to another tenant's share of the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty, and the mortgagee can only foreclose on that mortgagor's share. <a href="bank.htm">Bank</a> loans secured by mortgages on individual shares of <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a>ed <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty is one of the most rapidly expanding areas in the mortgage lending industry.<br/>
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Finally, co-tenants owe one another a duty of fair dealing. Because of this, any co-tenant who acquires a mortgage claim against the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty must give his co-tenants a reasonable opportunity to purchase <a href="prop.htm">prop</a>ortionate shares in that claim.<br/>
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<span class="h4">====Tenancy in common</span><br/>
Tenancy in common is the default form of con<a href="curr.htm">curr</a>ent e<a href="stat.htm">stat</a>e, in which each <a href="own.htm">own</a>er, referred to as a tenant in common, is regarded by the law as each <a href="own.htm">own</a>ing separate and distinct shares which may <a href="diff.htm">diff</a>er in size. This form of <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership is common where the <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a>ers are not married or have contributed <a href="diff.htm">diff</a>e<a href="rent.htm">rent</a> a<a href="mount.htm">mount</a>s to the acquisition of the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty. Also, if joint <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers had attempted to <a href="use.htm">use</a> another form of joint <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership such as a joint tenancy with right of survivorship or a tenancy by the entirety, and the effort was for some reason invalid, the joint <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers would then be tenants in common. If conclusive evidence is not available of the desire to create a tenancy with rights of survivorship or a tenancy by the entirety, courts will determine that a tenancy in common has in fact been created.<br/>
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Tenants in common have no right of survivorship, meaning that if one <a href="own.htm">own</a>er dies, that <a href="own.htm">own</a>er's interest in the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty will <a href="pass.htm">pass</a> by inheritance to that <a href="own.htm">own</a>er's devisees or heirs, either by will, or by inte<a href="stat.htm">stat</a>e succession.<br/>
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Destruction of a tenancy in common<br/>
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Where any <a href="part.htm">part</a>y to a tenancy in common wishes to destroy the joint interest, he or she can do so through a <a href="part.htm">part</a>ition of the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty - a division of the <a href="land.htm">land</a> into distinctly <a href="own.htm">own</a>ed plots if such division is legally permitted based upon zoning and other local <a href="land.htm">land</a> <a href="use.htm">use</a> restrictions or, where such division is not permitted, a forced sale of the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty followed by a division of proceeds.<br/>
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If the <a href="part.htm">part</a>ies are unable to <a href="agree.htm">agree</a> to a <a href="part.htm">part</a>ition, any or all of them may seek the ruling of a court to determine how the <a href="land.htm">land</a> should be divided up, physically divide it between the joint <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers <small>(<a href="part.htm">part</a>ition in kind)</small>, leaving each with <a href="own.htm">own</a>ership of a portion of the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty representing their share. Courts may also order a <a href="part.htm">part</a>ition by sale in which the <a href="proper.htm">proper</a>ty is sold and the proceeds are distributed to the <a href="own.htm">own</a>ers. Where local law does not permit physical division, the court must order a <a href="part.htm">part</a>ition by sale.<br/>
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Each <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a>er is en<a href="title.htm">title</a>d to <a href="part.htm">part</a>ition as a matter of right, meaning that the court will order a <a href="part.htm">part</a>ition at the request of any of the <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a>ers. The only exception to this general rule is where the <a href="co-own.htm">co-own</a>ers have <a href="agree.htm">agree</a>d, either expressly or impliedly, to waive the right of <a href="part.htm">part</a>ition. The right may be waived either permanently, for a specific period of time, or under certain conditions.<br/>
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