Logic.v

(** * Logic: Logic in Coq *)

Require Export MoreCoq. 



(** Coq's built-in logic is very small: the only primitives are
    [Inductive] definitions, universal quantification ([forall]), and
    implication ([->]), while all the other familiar logical
    connectives -- conjunction, disjunction, negation, existential
    quantification, even equality -- can be encoded using just these.

    This chapter explains the encodings and shows how the tactics
    we've seen can be used to carry out standard forms of logical
    reasoning involving these connectives. *)

(* ########################################################### *)
(** * Propositions *)

(** In previous chapters, we have seen many examples of factual
    claims (_propositions_) and ways of presenting evidence of their
    truth (_proofs_).  In particular, we have worked extensively with
    _equality propositions_ of the form [e1 = e2], with
    implications ([P -> Q]), and with quantified propositions 
    ([forall x, P]).  
*)


(** In Coq, the type of things that can (potentially) 
    be proven is [Prop]. *)

(** Here is an example of a provable proposition: *)

Check (3 = 3).
(* ===> Prop *)

(** Here is an example of an unprovable proposition: *)

Check (forall (n:nat), n = 2).
(* ===> Prop *)

(** Recall that [Check] asks Coq to tell us the type of the indicated 
  expression. *)

(* ########################################################### *)
(** * Proofs and Evidence *)

(** In Coq, propositions have the same status as other types, such as
    [nat].  Just as the natural numbers [0], [1], [2], etc. inhabit
    the type [nat], a Coq proposition [P] is inhabited by its
    _proofs_.  We will refer to such inhabitants as _proof term_ or
    _proof object_ or _evidence_ for the truth of [P]. 

    In Coq, when we state and then prove a lemma such as:

Lemma silly : 0 * 3 = 0.  
Proof. reflexivity. Qed.

    the tactics we use within the [Proof]...[Qed] keywords tell Coq
    how to construct a proof term that inhabits the proposition.  In
    this case, the proposition [0 * 3 = 0] is justified by a
    combination of the _definition_ of [mult], which says that [0 * 3]
    _simplifies_ to just [0], and the _reflexive_ principle of
    equality, which says that [0 = 0].


*)

(** *** *)

Lemma silly : 0 * 3 = 0.
Proof. reflexivity. Qed.

(** We can see which proof term Coq constructs for a given Lemma by
using the [Print] directive: *)

Print silly.
(* ===> silly = eq_refl : 0 * 3 = 0 *)

(** Here, the [eq_refl] proof term witnesses the equality. (More on equality later!)*)

(** ** Implications _are_ functions *)

(** Just as we can implement natural number multiplication as a
function:

[
mult : nat -> nat -> nat 
]

The _proof term_ for an implication [P -> Q] is a _function_ that takes evidence for [P] as input and produces evidence for [Q] as its output.
*)     

Lemma silly_implication : (1 + 1) = 2  ->  0 * 3 = 0.
Proof. intros H. reflexivity. Qed.

Definition silly_implication2 : (1 + 1) = 2  ->  0 * 3 = 0
  := fun _ => eq_refl.


(** We can see that the proof term for the above lemma is indeed a
function: *)

Print silly_implication.
(* ===> silly_implication = fun _ : 1 + 1 = 2 => eq_refl
     : 1 + 1 = 2 -> 0 * 3 = 0 *)

(** ** Defining Propositions *)

(** Just as we can create user-defined inductive types (like the
    lists, binary representations of natural numbers, etc., that we
    seen before), we can also create _user-defined_ propositions.

    Question: How do you define the meaning of a proposition?  
*)

(** *** *)

(** The meaning of a proposition is given by _rules_ and _definitions_
    that say how to construct _evidence_ for the truth of the
    proposition from other evidence.

    - Typically, rules are defined _inductively_, just like any other datatype.

    - Sometimes a proposition is declared to be true without substantiating evidence.  Such propositions are called _axioms_.  


    In this, and subsequence chapters, we'll see more about how these
    proof terms work in more detail.
*)

(* ########################################################### *)
(** * Conjunction (Logical "and") *)

(** The logical conjunction of propositions [P] and [Q] can be
    represented using an [Inductive] definition with one
    constructor. *)

Inductive and (P Q : Prop) : Prop :=
  conj : P -> Q -> (and P Q). 

(** The intuition behind this definition is simple: to
    construct evidence for [and P Q], we must provide evidence
    for [P] and evidence for [Q].  More precisely:

    - [conj p q] can be taken as evidence for [and P Q] if [p]
      is evidence for [P] and [q] is evidence for [Q]; and

    - this is the _only_ way to give evidence for [and P Q] --
      that is, if someone gives us evidence for [and P Q], we
      know it must have the form [conj p q], where [p] is
      evidence for [P] and [q] is evidence for [Q]. 

   Since we'll be using conjunction a lot, let's introduce a more
   familiar-looking infix notation for it. *)

Print "/\".
(**
Inductive and (A B : Prop) : Prop :=  conj : A -> B -> A /\ B
For conj: Arguments A, B are implicit
For and: Argument scopes are [type_scope type_scope]
For conj: Argument scopes are [type_scope type_scope _ _]
**)
Notation "P /\ Q" := (and P Q) : type_scope.
Print "/\".
(**
Inductive and (P Q : Prop) : Prop :=  conj : P -> Q -> P /\ Q

For and: Argument scopes are [type_scope type_scope]
For conj: Argument scopes are [type_scope type_scope _ _]
**)



(** (The [type_scope] annotation tells Coq that this notation
    will be appearing in propositions, not values.) *)

(** Consider the "type" of the constructor [conj]: *)

Check conj.
Print conj.
Check and.

(* ===>  forall P Q : Prop, P -> Q -> P /\ Q *)
(** BELOW IS KEY **)
(** Notice that it takes 4 inputs -- namely the propositions [P]
    and [Q] and evidence for [P] and [Q] -- and returns as output the
    evidence of [P /\ Q]. *)

(** ** "Introducing" Conjuctions *)
(** Besides the elegance of building everything up from a tiny
    foundation, what's nice about defining conjunction this way is
    that we can prove statements involving conjunction using the
    tactics that we already know.  For example, if the goal statement
    is a conjuction, we can prove it by applying the single
    constructor [conj], which (as can be seen from the type of [conj])
    solves the current goal and leaves the two parts of the
    conjunction as subgoals to be proved separately. *)

Theorem and_example : 
  (0 = 0) /\ (4 = mult 2 2).
Proof.
  apply conj.
  Case "left". reflexivity.
  Case "right". reflexivity.  Qed.

Definition and_example2: (0 = 0) /\ (4 = mult 2 2)
                                      := conj (0 = 0) (4 = mult 2 2) eq_refl eq_refl.


(** Just for convenience, we can use the tactic [split] as a shorthand for
    [apply conj]. *)

Theorem and_example' : 
  (0 = 0) /\ (4 = mult 2 2).
Proof.
  split.
    Case "left". reflexivity.
    Case "right". reflexivity.  Qed.

(** ** "Eliminating" conjunctions *)
(** Conversely, the [inversion] tactic can be used to take a
    conjunction hypothesis in the context, calculate what evidence
    must have been used to build it, and add variables representing
    this evidence to the proof context. *)

Theorem proj1 : forall P Q : Prop, 
  P /\ Q -> P.
Proof.
  intros P Q H.
  inversion H as [HP HQ]. 
  apply HP.  Qed.

(** **** Exercise: 1 star, optional (proj2) *)
Theorem proj2 : forall P Q : Prop, 
  P /\ Q -> Q.
Proof.
  intros P Q H.
  inversion H.
  apply H1.
Qed.

Theorem and_commut : forall P Q : Prop, 
  P /\ Q -> Q /\ P.
Proof.
  (* WORKED IN CLASS *)
  intros P Q H.
  inversion H as [HP HQ]. 
  split.  
    Case "left". apply HQ. 
    Case "right". apply HP.  Qed.
  

(** **** Exercise: 2 stars (and_assoc) *)
(** In the following proof, notice how the _nested pattern_ in the
    [inversion] breaks the hypothesis [H : P /\ (Q /\ R)] down into
    [HP: P], [HQ : Q], and [HR : R].  Finish the proof from there: *)



Theorem and_assoc : forall P Q R : Prop, 
  P /\ (Q /\ R) -> (P /\ Q) /\ R.
Proof.
  intros P Q R H.
  inversion H as [HP [HQ HR]].
  split.
  split.
  apply HP.
  apply HQ.
  apply HR.
Qed.



(* ###################################################### *)
(** * Iff *)

(** The handy "if and only if" connective is just the conjunction of
    two implications. *)

Definition iff (P Q : Prop) := (P -> Q) /\ (Q -> P).

Notation "P <-> Q" := (iff P Q) 
                      (at level 95, no associativity) 
                      : type_scope.

Theorem iff_implies : forall P Q : Prop, 
  (P <-> Q) -> P -> Q.
Proof.  
  intros P Q H. 
  inversion H as [HAB HBA]. apply HAB.  Qed.

Theorem iff_sym : forall P Q : Prop, 
  (P <-> Q) -> (Q <-> P).
Proof.
  (* WORKED IN CLASS *)
  intros P Q H. 
  inversion H as [HAB HBA].
  split.
    Case "->". apply HBA.
    Case "<-". apply HAB.  Qed.

(** **** Exercise: 1 star, optional (iff_properties) *)
(** Using the above proof that [<->] is symmetric ([iff_sym]) as
    a guide, prove that it is also reflexive and transitive. *)

Theorem iff_refl : forall P : Prop, 
  P <-> P.
Proof.
  intros P.
  split.
  intros H.
  apply H.
  intros H.
  apply H.
Qed.

Theorem iff_trans : forall P Q R : Prop, 
  (P <-> Q) -> (Q <-> R) -> (P <-> R).
Proof.
  intros P Q R.
  split.
  inversion H.
  inversion H0.
  intros T.
  apply H3.
  apply H1.
  apply T.
  inversion H.
  inversion H0.
  intros T.
  apply H2.
  apply H4.
  apply T.
Qed.

(** Hint: If you have an iff hypothesis in the context, you can use
    [inversion] to break it into two separate implications.  (Think
    about why this works.) *)
(** [] *)



(** Some of Coq's tactics treat [iff] statements specially, thus
    avoiding the need for some low-level manipulation when reasoning
    with them.  In particular, [rewrite] can be used with [iff]
    statements, not just equalities. *)

(* ############################################################ *)
(** * Disjunction (Logical "or") *)

(** ** Implementing Disjunction *)

(** Disjunction ("logical or") can also be defined as an
    inductive proposition. *)

Inductive or (P Q : Prop) : Prop :=
  | or_introl : P -> or P Q
  | or_intror : Q -> or P Q. 

Notation "P \/ Q" := (or P Q) : type_scope.

(** Consider the "type" of the constructor [or_introl]: *)

Check or_introl.
(* ===>  forall P Q : Prop, P -> P \/ Q *)

(** It takes 3 inputs, namely the propositions [P], [Q] and
    evidence of [P], and returns, as output, the evidence of [P \/ Q].
    Next, look at the type of [or_intror]: *)

Check or_intror.
(* ===>  forall P Q : Prop, Q -> P \/ Q *)

(** It is like [or_introl] but it requires evidence of [Q]
    instead of evidence of [P]. *)

(** Intuitively, there are two ways of giving evidence for [P \/ Q]:

    - give evidence for [P] (and say that it is [P] you are giving
      evidence for -- this is the function of the [or_introl]
      constructor), or

    - give evidence for [Q], tagged with the [or_intror]
      constructor. *)

(** *** *)
(** Since [P \/ Q] has two constructors, doing [inversion] on a
    hypothesis of type [P \/ Q] yields two subgoals. *)

Theorem or_commut : forall P Q : Prop,
  P \/ Q  -> Q \/ P.
Proof.
  intros P Q H.
  inversion H as [HP | HQ].
    Case "left". apply or_intror. apply HP.
    Case "right". apply or_introl. apply HQ.  Qed.

(** From here on, we'll use the shorthand tactics [left] and [right]
    in place of [apply or_introl] and [apply or_intror]. *)

Theorem or_commut' : forall P Q : Prop,
  P \/ Q  -> Q \/ P.
Proof.
  intros P Q H.
  inversion H as [HP | HQ].
    Case "left". right. apply HP.
    Case "right". left. apply HQ.  Qed.





Theorem or_distributes_over_and_1 : forall P Q R : Prop,
  P \/ (Q /\ R) -> (P \/ Q) /\ (P \/ R).
Proof. 
  intros P Q R. intros H. inversion H as [HP | [HQ HR]]. 
    Case "left". split.
      SCase "left". left. apply HP.
      SCase "right". left. apply HP.
    Case "right". split.
      SCase "left". right. apply HQ.
      SCase "right". right. apply HR.  Qed.

(** **** Exercise: 2 stars (or_distributes_over_and_2) *)
Theorem or_distributes_over_and_2 : forall P Q R : Prop,
  (P \/ Q) /\ (P \/ R) -> P \/ (Q /\ R).
Proof.
  intros P Q R.
  intros H.
  inversion H as [HPQ HPR].
  inversion HPQ.
  Case "HPQ : P".
  left.
  apply H0.
  Case "HPQ : Q".
  inversion HPR.
  SCase "HPR : P".
  left.
  apply H1.
  SCase "HPR : R".
  right.
  split.
  apply H0.
  apply H1.
Qed.

(** **** Exercise: 1 star, optional (or_distributes_over_and) *)
Theorem or_distributes_over_and : forall P Q R : Prop,
  P \/ (Q /\ R) <-> (P \/ Q) /\ (P \/ R).
Proof.
  intros P Q R.
  split.
  intros HPQR.
  apply or_distributes_over_and_1 in HPQR.
  apply HPQR.
  intros HPQPR.
  apply or_distributes_over_and_2 in HPQPR.
  apply HPQPR.
Qed.

(* ################################################### *)
(** ** Relating [/\] and [\/] with [andb] and [orb] (advanced) *)

(** We've already seen several places where analogous structures
    can be found in Coq's computational ([Type]) and logical ([Prop])
    worlds.  Here is one more: the boolean operators [andb] and [orb]
    are clearly analogs of the logical connectives [/\] and [\/].
    This analogy can be made more precise by the following theorems,
    which show how to translate knowledge about [andb] and [orb]'s
    behaviors on certain inputs into propositional facts about those
    inputs. *)

Theorem andb_prop : forall b c,
  andb b c = true -> b = true /\ c = true.
Proof.
  (* WORKED IN CLASS *)
  intros b c H.
  destruct b.
    Case "b = true". destruct c.
      SCase "c = true". apply conj. reflexivity. reflexivity.
      SCase "c = false". inversion H.
    Case "b = false". inversion H.  Qed.

Theorem andb_true_intro : forall b c,
  b = true /\ c = true -> andb b c = true.
Proof.
  (* WORKED IN CLASS *)
  intros b c H.
  inversion H.
  rewrite H0. rewrite H1. reflexivity. Qed.

(** **** Exercise: 2 stars, optional (bool_prop) *)
Theorem andb_false : forall b c,
  andb b c = false -> b = false \/ c = false.
Proof.
  intros b c H.
  destruct b eqn : Tb.
  destruct c eqn : Tc.
  inversion H.
  right. reflexivity.
  left. reflexivity.
Qed.

Theorem orb_prop : forall b c,
  orb b c = true -> b = true \/ c = true.
Proof.
  intros b c H.
  destruct b eqn : Tb.
  left. reflexivity.
  right.
  destruct c eqn : Tc.
  reflexivity.
  inversion H.
Qed.

Theorem orb_false_elim : forall b c,
  orb b c = false -> b = false /\ c = false.
Proof.
  intros b c H.
  destruct b eqn : Tb.
  inversion H.
  destruct c eqn : Tc.
  inversion H.
  split. reflexivity. reflexivity.
Qed.



(* ################################################### *)
(** * Falsehood *)

(** Logical falsehood can be represented in Coq as an inductively
    defined proposition with no constructors. *)

Inductive False : Prop := . 

(** Intuition: [False] is a proposition for which there is no way
    to give evidence. *)


(** Since [False] has no constructors, inverting an assumption
    of type [False] always yields zero subgoals, allowing us to
    immediately prove any goal. *)

Theorem False_implies_nonsense :
  False -> 2 + 2 = 5.
Proof. 
  intros contra.
  inversion contra.  Qed. 

(** How does this work? The [inversion] tactic breaks [contra] into
    each of its possible cases, and yields a subgoal for each case.
    As [contra] is evidence for [False], it has _no_ possible cases,
    hence, there are no possible subgoals and the proof is done. *)

(** *** *)
(** Conversely, the only way to prove [False] is if there is already
    something nonsensical or contradictory in the context: *)

Theorem nonsense_implies_False :
  2 + 2 = 5 -> False.
Proof.
  intros contra.
  inversion contra.  Qed.

(** Actually, since the proof of [False_implies_nonsense]
    doesn't actually have anything to do with the specific nonsensical
    thing being proved; it can easily be generalized to work for an
    arbitrary [P]: *)

Theorem ex_falso_quodlibet : forall (P:Prop),
  False -> P.
Proof.
  (* WORKED IN CLASS *)
  intros P contra.
  inversion contra.  Qed.

(** The Latin _ex falso quodlibet_ means, literally, "from
    falsehood follows whatever you please."  This theorem is also
    known as the _principle of explosion_. *)


(* #################################################### *)
(** ** Truth *)

(** Since we have defined falsehood in Coq, one might wonder whether
    it is possible to define truth in the same way.  We can. *)

(** **** Exercise: 2 stars, advanced (True) *)
(** Define [True] as another inductively defined proposition.  (The
    intution is that [True] should be a proposition for which it is
    trivial to give evidence.) *)

Inductive True : Prop := always_works.

(** However, unlike [False], which we'll use extensively, [True] is
    used fairly rarely. By itself, it is trivial (and therefore
    uninteresting) to prove as a goal, and it carries no useful
    information as a hypothesis. But it can be useful when defining
    complex [Prop]s using conditionals, or as a parameter to 
    higher-order [Prop]s. *)

(* #################################################### *)
(** * Negation *)

(** The logical complement of a proposition [P] is written [not
    P] or, for shorthand, [~P]: *)

Definition not (P:Prop) := P -> False.

(** The intuition is that, if [P] is not true, then anything at
    all (even [False]) follows from assuming [P]. *)

Notation "~ x" := (not x) : type_scope.

Check not.
(* ===> Prop -> Prop *)


(** It takes a little practice to get used to working with
    negation in Coq.  Even though you can see perfectly well why
    something is true, it can be a little hard at first to get things
    into the right configuration so that Coq can see it!  Here are
    proofs of a few familiar facts about negation to get you warmed
    up. *)

Theorem not_False : 
  ~ False.
Proof.
  unfold not. intros H. inversion H.  Qed.


(** *** *)
Theorem contradiction_implies_anything : forall P Q : Prop,
  (P /\ ~P) -> Q.
Proof. 
  (* WORKED IN CLASS *)
  intros P Q H. inversion H as [HP HNA]. unfold not in HNA. 
  apply HNA in HP. inversion HP.  Qed.

Theorem double_neg : forall P : Prop,
  P -> ~~P.
Proof.
  (* WORKED IN CLASS *)
  intros P H. unfold not. intros G. apply G. apply H.  Qed.

(** **** Exercise: 2 stars, advanced (double_neg_inf) *)
(** Write an informal proof of [double_neg]:

   _Theorem_: [P] implies [~~P], for any proposition [P].

   _Proof_:
(* FILL IN HERE *)
   []
*)

(** **** Exercise: 2 stars (contrapositive) *)
Theorem contrapositive : forall P Q : Prop,
  (P -> Q) -> (~Q -> ~P).
Proof.
  intros P Q.
  intros H.
  unfold not.
  intros H' H''.
  apply H' in H.
  inversion H.
  apply H''.
Qed.


(** **** Exercise: 1 star (not_both_true_and_false) *)
Theorem not_both_true_and_false : forall P : Prop,
  ~ (P /\ ~P).
Proof.
  intros P.
  unfold not.
  intros H.
  inversion H.
  apply H1 in H0.
  inversion H0.
Qed.

(** **** Exercise: 1 star, advanced (informal_not_PNP) *)
(** Write an informal proof (in English) of the proposition [forall P
    : Prop, ~(P /\ ~P)]. *)

(* FILL IN HERE *)
(** [] *)

(** *** Constructive logic *)
(** Note that some theorems that are true in classical logic are _not_
    provable in Coq's (constructive) logic.  E.g., let's look at how
    this proof gets stuck... *)

Theorem classic_double_neg : forall P : Prop,
  ~~P -> P.
Proof.
  (* WORKED IN CLASS *)
  intros P H. unfold not in H. 
  (* But now what? There is no way to "invent" evidence for [~P] 
     from evidence for [P]. *) 
  Abort.

(** **** Exercise: 5 stars, advanced, optional (classical_axioms) *)
(** For those who like a challenge, here is an exercise
    taken from the Coq'Art book (p. 123).  The following five
    statements are often considered as characterizations of
    classical logic (as opposed to constructive logic, which is
    what is "built in" to Coq).  We can't prove them in Coq, but
    we can consistently add any one of them as an unproven axiom
    if we wish to work in classical logic.  Prove that these five
    propositions are equivalent. *)

Definition peirce := forall P Q: Prop, 
  ((P->Q)->P)->P.
Definition classic := forall P:Prop, 
  ~~P -> P.
Definition excluded_middle := forall P:Prop, 
  P \/ ~P.
Definition de_morgan_not_and_not := forall P Q:Prop, 
  ~(~P /\ ~Q) -> P\/Q.
Definition implies_to_or := forall P Q:Prop, 
  (P->Q) -> (~P\/Q).

Theorem peirce_implies_classic_mimic :
  peirce -> classic.
Proof.
  unfold peirce.
  unfold classic.
  intros H P G.
  unfold not in G.

  (**
  apply (H P False).
  intros T.
  destruct G as [].
  unfold not.
  apply T.
**)
  
  apply H with (Q:=False).
  intros T.
  apply ex_falso_quodlibet.
  apply G.
  apply T.
Qed.
(** https://github.com/etosch/software_foundations/commit/318b4ee046dc649a9c711dbc4f3b00a00f42d0f9 **)


Theorem classic_implies_excluded_middle_mimic :
  classic -> excluded_middle.
Proof.
  unfold classic.
  unfold excluded_middle.
  intros classic.
  intros P.
  unfold not.
  
  apply classic.
  unfold not.
  intros H.
  apply H.
  right.
  intros H'.
  apply H.
  left.
  apply H'.
Qed.
(**
https://github.com/suharahiromichi/coq/blob/master/sf/coq_sf_logic_classic.v
 **)

(** right ---> apply orintror  **)
(** split ---> destruct **)

Theorem excluded_middle_implies_de_morgan_not_and_not_mimic :
  excluded_middle -> de_morgan_not_and_not.
Proof.
  intros H0 P Q H1.
  unfold excluded_middle in H0.
  unfold not in H0.
  unfold not in H1.
  destruct (H0 P) as [A|B].
  left. apply A.
  right.
  destruct (H0 Q) as [A'|B'].
    apply A'.
    destruct H1.
    split.
    apply B. apply B'.
Qed.



Theorem de_morgan_not_and_not_implies_implies_to_or :
  de_morgan_not_and_not -> implies_to_or.
Proof.
  unfold de_morgan_not_and_not.
  intros H.
  unfold implies_to_or.
  intros P Q G.
  apply H.
  intros T.
  unfold not in T.
  destruct T as [].
  apply H0.
  intros U.
  apply H1.
  apply G.
  apply U.
Qed.

Theorem implies_to_or_implies_peirce :
  implies_to_or -> peirce.
Proof.
  intros H1.
  intros P Q H2.
  unfold implies_to_or in H1.
  assert(H3 : (~~P) \/ P).
  apply (H1 (~P) P).
  intros H3.
  apply H2.
  intros H4.
  assert(H5 : P /\ ~P -> False).
  apply not_both_true_and_false.
  destruct H5.
  split.
  apply H4.
  apply H3.
  
  destruct H3 as [H3A|H3B].
  assert (no_mid : ~P \/ P).
  apply H1. intros H4. apply H4.
  destruct no_mid as [no_midA|no_midB].
  assert (H4 : (~P) /\ (~~P) -> False).
  apply not_both_true_and_false.
  destruct H4.
  split.
  apply no_midA.
  apply H3A.
  apply no_midB.
  apply H3B.
Qed.

Theorem peirce_implies_classic :
  peirce -> classic.
Proof.
  unfold peirce.
  unfold classic.
  intros H1 P H2.
  apply H1 with (Q:=P).
  intros H3.
  apply H1 with (Q:=False).
  intros H4.
  apply H1 with (Q:=(~P)).
  intros H5.
  unfold not in H5.
  assert (H6 : ((False -> P) -> False) -> False).
  apply (H1 False P).
  destruct H6.
  apply ex_falso_quodlibet.
  assert (H7 : ((False -> ~P) -> False) -> False).
  apply (H1 False (~P)).
  apply H7.
  intros H6.
  assert (H8 : ((P -> False) -> P) -> P).
  apply H1.
  unfold not in H2.
  destruct H2.
  apply H4.
Qed.

Theorem classic_implies_excluded_middle :
  classic -> excluded_middle.
Proof.
  intros H1.
  unfold classic in H1.
  intros P.
  unfold not.
  apply H1.
  unfold not.
  intros H2.
  apply H1.
  unfold not.
  intros H3.
  apply H1.
  unfold not.
  unfold not in H1.
  apply H1.
  intros H4.
  apply H2.
  right.
  intros H5.
  apply H2.
  left.
  apply H5.
Qed.

Theorem excluded_middle_implies_de_morgan_not_and_not :
  excluded_middle -> de_morgan_not_and_not.
Proof.
  unfold excluded_middle.
  unfold de_morgan_not_and_not.
  intros H1.
  intros P Q H2.
  unfold not in H2.
  unfold not in H1.
  assert(H3 : P \/ (P -> False)). apply H1.
  assert(H4 : Q \/ (Q -> False)). apply H1.  
  destruct H3 as [H3A|H3B].
  left.
  apply H3A.
  destruct H4 as [H4A|H4B].
  right.
  apply H4A.
  assert(H5 : False).
  apply H2.
  split.
  apply H3B.
  apply H4B.
  inversion H5.
Qed.

(** practice **)
Theorem classic_implies_de_morgan_not_and_not :
  classic -> de_morgan_not_and_not.
Proof.
  unfold classic.
  unfold de_morgan_not_and_not.
  unfold not.
  intros H1.
  intros P Q H2.
  apply H1.
  intros H3.
  apply H3.
  assert(H4 : ((P -> False) -> False) -> P). apply H1.
  left.
  apply H4.
  intros H5.
  apply H3.
  right.
  assert(H6 : ((Q -> False) -> False) -> Q). apply H1.
  apply H6.
  intros H7.
  apply H2.
  split.
  apply H5.
  apply H7.
Qed.



(** This theorem implies that it is always safe to add a decidability
axiom (i.e. an instance of excluded middle) for any _particular_ Prop [P].
Why? Because we cannot prove the negation of such an axiom; if we could,
we would have both [~ (P \/ ~P)] and [~ ~ (P \/ ~P)], a contradiction. *)

Theorem excluded_middle_irrefutable:  forall (P:Prop), ~ ~ (P \/ ~ P).  
Proof.
  intros P.
  unfold not.
  intros H.
  apply H.
  right.
  intros T.
  apply H.
  left.
  apply T.
Qed.

(* ########################################################## *)
(** ** Inequality *)

(** Saying [x <> y] is just the same as saying [~(x = y)]. *)

Notation "x <> y" := (~ (x = y)) : type_scope.

(** Since inequality involves a negation, it again requires
    a little practice to be able to work with it fluently.  Here
    is one very useful trick.  If you are trying to prove a goal
    that is nonsensical (e.g., the goal state is [false = true]),
    apply the lemma [ex_falso_quodlibet] to change the goal to
    [False].  This makes it easier to use assumptions of the form
    [~P] that are available in the context -- in particular,
    assumptions of the form [x<>y]. *)

Theorem not_false_then_true : forall b : bool,
  b <> false -> b = true.
Proof.
  intros b H. destruct b.
  Case "b = true". reflexivity.
  Case "b = false".
    unfold not in H.  
    apply ex_falso_quodlibet.
    apply H. reflexivity.   Qed.


(** *** *)

(** *** *)

(** *** *)

(** *** *)

(** *** *)

(** **** Exercise: 2 stars (false_beq_nat) *)
Theorem false_beq_nat : forall n m : nat,
     n <> m ->
     beq_nat n m = false.
Proof.
  intros n m.
  intros H.
  unfold not in H.
  destruct (beq_nat n m) eqn : G.
  apply ex_falso_quodlibet.
  apply H.
  apply beq_nat_true.
  apply G.
  reflexivity.
Qed.  
(**  apply ex_falso_quodlibet with (P:=(n=m)) in H. **)


(** **** Exercise: 2 stars, optional (beq_nat_false) *)
Theorem beq_nat_false : forall n m,
  beq_nat n m = false -> n <> m.
Proof.
  intros n.
  induction n as [|n'].
  intros m e.
  unfold not.
  intros e2.
  rewrite <- e2 in e.
  inversion e.
  intros m e.
  unfold not.
  intros e2.
  rewrite <- e2 in e.
  rewrite <- beq_nat_refl in e.
  inversion e.
Qed.





(* $Date: 2014-06-05 07:22:21 -0400 (Thu, 05 Jun 2014) $ *)