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LLM-based article processing pipeline

This repository contains text processing code relevant to the class CMSC 35360 at the University of Chicago. There are two directories:

  • source is the code described in the following
  • eth is example data relating to Ethylene, as referenced in the following

Some set up

Install GNU parallel: See https://www.gnu.org/software/parallel/parallel_tutorial.html

Install txtai:

% pip install txtai
% pip install "txtai[pipeline]"

Assemble a list of keywords for your area of interest

You can do this with ChatGPT4 by using a prompt like the following, with my area of interest in boldface:

I want to retrieve documents from Semantic Scholar that relate to the science and engineering of materials that can catalyze the reduction of CO2 to ethylene. Please suggest to me 100 sets of possible keywords. Output each set of keywords on a separate line, without any numbers.

Save the output from this prompt in a file $DATASET/${DATASET}.txt, where ${DATASET} is a unique string like "eth" for Ethylene. E.g., the first three lines of my file were:

ethylene production from CO1
CO2 reduction to ethylene catalysts
materials science CO2 conversion

The next instruction is only necessary because I could not persuade ChatGPT to output the required characters reliably: Edit the file to prepend '( and append )' to each line, giving e.g.:

'( ethylene production from CO2 )'
'( CO2 reduction to ethylene catalysts )'
'( materials science CO2 conversion )'
...

Retrieve titles and abstracts; eleminate duplicates

Run the program source/bulk_fetch_abstracts_from_SS_via_keyword.py which for each line in $DATASET/${DATASET}.txt dispatches a query to Semantic Scholar (SS) for titles + abstract that pertain to that keyword. Provide as an argument:

% DATASET=eth
% python3.11 source/bulk_fetch_abstracts_from_SS_via_keyword.py -d $DATASET -f $DATASET/${DATASET}.txt

This produces a file $DATASET/{$DATASET}.jsonl that contains information retrieved from Semantic Scholar (SS). This file has one JSON document per line, with each document representing a paper, containing an SS id, title, abstract, etc.

Eliminate duplicates:

% sort -u $DATASET/$DATASET.jsonl > $DATASET/${DATASET}_uniq.jsonl
% mv $DATASET/${DATASET}_uniq.jsonl $DATASET/${DATASET}.jsonl

Identify relevant documents

Your original queries likely generated many irrelevant documents. For example, my queries relating to Ethylene returned articles relating to the ripening of fruit. Thus, you may want to use an LLM to rate the relevance of each paper found so far. The program source/llm_check_relevance.py does this, using this prompt:

gpt_user_prompt = "Read the following abstract carefully. After reading, answer the following questions to determine if the abstract pertains to research related to finding a new and improved catalyst for the conversion of CO2 to ethylene, giving a score of 1 if true and 0 if false, and reporting each in a separate line with the form : : Topic Relevance: Does the abstract mention 'CO2', 'carbon dioxide', 'ethylene', or 'catalysts'? List any terms used in the abstract that relate to these keywords. Research Focus: Is the primary focus of the research on developing or testing materials that could act as catalysts? Specify what the research aims to achieve or discover. Outcome Mention: Does the abstract discuss any results or potential outcomes regarding the efficiency, selectivity, or improvement of catalysts for converting CO2 to ethylene? Briefly describe these outcomes. Innovation Highlight: Does the abstract indicate any novel approaches, techniques, or materials being investigated or used for the catalysts? Detail any innovative aspects mentioned. Aggregate Score: Add the four scores to get an aggregate score of from 0 to 4, and report that score in the form Aggregate Score: , along with a sentence of about 50 words explaining your overall score. [## BEGIN ABSTRACT " + chunk + " END ABSTRACT ##]"

We run the program as follows. You need to know an ip address and API key for an inference server.

% python3.11 source/llm_check_relevance.py $DATASET $IPADDRESS $APIKEY

This produces a file $DATASET/${DATASET}_scores.csv, e.g. see the first two lines of eth/eth_scores.csv:

000019fa6cd085dd4668e61800794e0764516e37,3,1,0,1,1,"The abstract is partially relevant to the topic of finding a new and improved catalyst for the conversion of CO2 to ethylene, as it discusses the use of TiO2 as a catalyst and the limitation of CO2 formation. However, the primary focus is on waste management and not specifically on CO2 to ethylene conversion."
00297f4d2ddee2de98c1d04a03529a349ddbff32,4,1,1,1,1,"The abstract is highly relevant to research on finding a new and improved catalyst for the conversion of CO2 to ethylene, as it discusses the development of novel MOFs with excellent catalytic activity in CO2 fixation, which is a crucial step towards converting CO2 to ethylene."

You can then identify the documents with different scores:

% grep ",4," $DATASET/${DATASET}_scores.csv > $DATASET/${DATASET}_score4.ids
% grep ",3," $DATASET/${DATASET}_scores.csv > $DATASET/${DATASET}_score3.ids
% grep ",2," $DATASET/${DATASET}_scores.csv > $DATASET/${DATASET}_score2.ids
% grep ",1," $DATASET/${DATASET}_scores.csv > $DATASET/${DATASET}_score1.ids
% grep ",0," $DATASET/${DATASET}_scores.csv > $DATASET/${DATASET}_score0.ids

Extract document ids and retrieve documents

Now we are ready to retrieve documents. We use the program source/retrieve_documents_from_SS.py, which takes as arguments:

  • The $DATASET, as always
  • The name of a file containing ids for which documents are to be retrieved (e.g., one of the ${DATASET}_score{$N}.ids files just created
  • An optional number of documents to skip (useful to avoid re-fetching when re-running).

This program requires a Semantic Scholar API key, which we store in the environment variable S2_API_KEY.

Thus, for example:

% export S2_API_KEY=$MY_SS_API_KEY
% python source/retrieve_documents_from_SS.py -d $DATASET -p $DATASET/${DATASET}_score4.ids

This produces a folder $DATASET/papers_${DATASET} containing the retrieved papers. Note it will only retrieve those with open source PDFs, which experience suggests to be around 10-15% of all documents.

Extract text from PDFs

We then use the txtai library to extract the txt from the PDFs:

% python3.11 source/extract_txt_from_pdf.py $DATASET

This produces, for each valid PDF, a file with a ".txt" extension in the folder $DATASET/papers_${DATASET}.

Note: If you need to re-run this program, e.g., because of an error, you may want to search for the words "Substitute the following" in source/extract_txt_from_pdf.py and enter the name of a file containing SS ids that were reported in previous runs to be non-open access, just to speed things yp,

Generate a summary of each document

Here we use the program llm_summarize_all.py which prompts the LLM as follows. (The "chunk" is the first 20,000 characters of the document, a number chosen to reflect roughly the context window of the LLM. (We have also tried asking the model to update its summary based on subsequent chunks, but have not evaluated whether that makes a difference.)

Please summarize in approximately 800 words this paper. [## BEGIN PAPER " + chunk + " END PAPER ##] Your summary should contain the TITLE of the paper, the YEAR the paper was published, the KEY FINDINGS, the MAIN RESULT, one novel HYPOTHESIS the paper proposes or that you can infer from the text when the hypothesis is not explicit. Please propose an EXPERIMENT that would validate the hypothesis; be specific about required equipment and steps to follow. In addition to generating the summary, please generate a list of up to ten KEYWORDS that are relevant to the paper. Please output your response as a valid JSON document with the UPPER CASE words as keys, and no other text before or after the JSON document.

% python3.11 source/llm_summarize_all_documents.py $DATASET $IPADDRESS $APIKEY

This program generates a ${DATASET}/papers/${FILE}.summary file for each ${FILE}.txt file in papers. There are then additional programs to process these files:

% source source/compact_summary_files.sh $DATASET  # Generate files with '.2' suffix, containing JSON with no newlines
% python3.11 source/generate_jsonl_file.py $DATASET  # Concatenate ',2' files to create all.jsonl file containing all outputs
% python3.11 source/extract_hypotheses_from_llm_output.py $DATASET # Read all.jsonl and extract information

Here is an example of a summary:

{
  "TITLE": "Adsorption, activation, and conversion of carbon dioxide on small copper–tin nanoclusters",
  "YEAR": 2023,
  "KEY FINDINGS": "The study investigates the effects of nanostructuring, doping, and support on the activity and selectivity of Cu–Sn catalysts for CO2 conversion to CO and HCOOH. The Cu2Sn2 cluster is found to be highly selective towards CO if unsupported, or HCOOH if supported on graphene.",
  "MAIN RESULT": "The Cu2Sn2 cluster is a potential candidate for the electrocatalytic conversion of CO2 molecule.",
  "HYPOTHESIS": "The incorporation of Sn atoms in small copper clusters can enhance the selectivity towards CO or HCOOH by altering the electronic structure and atomic arrangement of the active sites.",
  "EXPERIMENT": {
    "Title": "Electrocatalytic CO2 reduction on Cu2Sn2 clusters supported on graphene",
    "Equipment": "Electrochemical workstation, CO2 gas, graphene-supported Cu2Sn2 clusters, electrolyte solution (e.g. 0.1 M KHCO3)",
    "Steps": [
      "Prepare graphene-supported Cu2Sn2 clusters using a suitable method (e.g. chemical vapor deposition)",
      "Set up the electrochemical workstation with a three-electrode configuration",
      "Perform CO2 reduction reaction at a constant potential (e.g. -0.5 V vs. RHE) and monitor the product distribution using gas chromatography or other analytical techniques",
      "Compare the product distribution with and without graphene support to validate the hypothesis"
    ]
  },
  "KEYWORDS": ["CO2 conversion","electrocatalysis","Cu-Sn nanoclusters","graphene support","selectivity","CO","HCOOH","electrochemical reduction","nanostructuring","doping"]
}