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After compiling IPC we need to create 3 folders named 1, 8, 12 in input/ to be able to use batch.py to conveniently run IPC with multi-threaded direct linear solvers (CHOLMOD).
Copy input/tutorialExamples/2cubesFall.txt to any one of the folders input/1, input/8, or input/12 depending on how many threads we want to use for each linear solver. Then in the root directory run
python batch.py
We will obtain the “Hello World” simulation results of IPC with 2 cubes falling together to the ground.
Let’s take a look at the config file input/tutorialExamples/2cubesFall.txt:
shapes input 2 input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 selfFric 0.1 ground 0.1 0
The config is simple:
- The
shapesblock specifies 2 cubes, placed one upon each other (first 3 numbers are translation x, y, z) without rotation (middle 3 numbers, Euler angle in degree) or scalings (last 3 numbers) to the original geometry. Here we provide a lot of input shapes (tetrahedral meshes in .msh) ininput/tetMeshes/. We will talk about how to use other shapes later. - Then we use
selfFricto set friction coefficient between objects to0.1, if we don’t specify it by default it is simply0. (IPC sees inter-object contact as equivalent to self-contact.) - Finally, we add a ground plane (halfspace) also with friction coefficient
0.1aty=0. Here the plane is infinitely large and analytical, the meshed plane we saw is just for easy rendering. - Note that the order of the blocks in the script file does not matter.
Now let’s make some changes to the hello world script to make the simulation more interesting.
By default, IPC uses material parameters at
- Density = 1000 kg/m^3
- Young’s Modulus = 10^5 Pa
- Poisson’s Ratio = 0.4
To change these parameters for all objects in the scene, we can add another text block in the script file input/tutorialExamples/2cubesFall_stiffer.txt:
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
+ density 1000
+ stiffness 1e6 0.4
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0The added texts here are added to set the Young’s Modulus 10x larger than default while keeping density and Poisson’s ratio the same as the default. Let’s see what we get:
Yes! The boxes are stiffer now.
We can also set different materials for different objects: (input/tutorialExamples/2cubesFall_heavyTop.txt)
shapes input 2
- input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
+ input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 material 3000 1e8 0.4
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0Adding the material keyword together with density (kg/m^3), Young’s modulus (Pa), and Poisson’s ratio to the end of an input shape line can set material parameters for this shape. If not specified, the shape will just be the global material. Here we set the top box 3x heavier and 1000x stiffer!
As we see the top box is nearly rigid now and the bottom box deforms more. (Here we rendered softer material with a lighter color.) Even with this super stiff material IPC stays robust and accurate.
By default IPC simulates a scene for 5 seconds with a time step size of 0.025s, generating 200 frames.
One option to get more energetic animation (while sticking with implicit Euler stepping -- see also Newmark stepping with IPC below) is to apply smaller time step sizes to reduce the numerical damping of implicit Euler time integration: (input/tutorialExamples/2cubesFall_smallerDt.txt)
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0
+ time 5 0.005The time command here set the simulation time to 5s and time step size to 0.005s, which results in a more energetic animation:
One of the exciting features of IPC is that it is robust enough to support extremely large time step sizes on the order of seconds with implicit Euler. In turn this enables rapid solutions of equilibrium conditions subject to contact, friction and large deformation (via nearly quasi-static solves under numerical damping). For a simple demonstration, we can simulate our hello world example with dt=1s: (input/tutorialExamples/2cubesFall_largerDt.txt)
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0
+ time 5 1
The animation now is composed of only 5 frames, 1 for each second. As we see numerical damping is so large that the cubes are barely bouncing.
To recap, here we also provide the full script of the default hello world example that explicitly lists all default settings as a reference: (input/tutorialExamples/2cubesFall_full.txt)
shapes input 2 input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 material 1000 1e5 0.4 input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 material 1000 1e5 0.4 density 1000 stiffness 1e5 0.4 selfFric 0.1 ground 0.1 0 time 5 0.025
To set nonzero initial velocities for objects, simply append the initial linear and angular (Euler angles by degree) velocities to the end of each shape line just like how we assign object materials individually.
Specifically, following the keyword initVel, we use 6 floating point numbers to set the linear and angular initial velocity of the object. This script sets the upper box to be initially rotating 90 deg/s along y axis: (input/tutorialExamples/initVel/2cubesFall_initRot.txt)
shapes input 2
- input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
+ input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 initVel 0 0 0 0 90 0
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0
This script sets the initial linear velocity of the upper box to be -20 m/s along y axis: (input/tutorialExamples/initVel/2cubesFall_initVel.txt)
shapes input 2
- input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
+ input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 initVel 0 -20 0 0 0 0
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0
Even for this high-speed impact scene, IPC stays robust and accurate without numerical instabilities or explosion.
In many simulations we want to script the motion of certain objects, this can be done by simply adding prescribed linear or angular (Euler angles by degree) velocities to the end of each shape line just like how we assign object materials individually.
input/tutorialExamples/MCO/2cubesFall_translateCO.txt:
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
- input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
+ input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 linearVelocity 1 1 1
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0The above script sets the bottom box to kinematically move by a velocity of (1, 1, 1) m/s:
input/tutorialExamples/MCO/2cubesFall_rotateCO.txt:
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
- input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
+ input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 angularVelocity 10 90 0
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0The above script sets the bottom box to kinematically rotate (around its current axis-aligned bounding box center) by an angular velocity of (10, 90, 0) degree/s in Euler’s angle representation:
IPC contact handling is based on distances and so directly supports codimensional (surfaces, edges, points) kinematic collision objects!
Note: currently, IPC does not yet include simulated codimensional materials like shells or rods.
If we script the motion of an object, then for a closed surface the interior tessellation is unnecessary, and we can directly use a surface mesh (.obj file)!
input/tutorialExamples/MCO/2cubesFall_rotateCO_closedSurface.txt:
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
- input/triMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 angularVelocity 10 90 0
+ input/triMeshes/cube.obj 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 angularVelocity 10 90 0
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0It gives the same result as scripting volumetric objects but usually can be more efficient: (Here we rendered non-volumetric objects with a lighter color.)
input/tutorialExamples/MCO/2cubesFall_rotateCO_triangle.txt:
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
- input/triMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 angularVelocity 10 90 0
+ input/triMeshes/triangle.obj 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 angularVelocity 10 90 0
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0This script uses a single triangle at the bottom:
This script uses the same single triangle but only with its edges. Here we also scale the triangle 2x larger to let the box fall through. input/tutorialExamples/MCO/2cubesFall_rotateCO_edges.txt:
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
- input/triMeshes/triangle.obj 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 angularVelocity 10 90 0
+ input/triMeshes/triangle.seg 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 angularVelocity 10 90 0
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0
zoom 0.3
The .seg file specifies the edges, but here we are applying a trick: there is actually no triangle.seg file under input/triMeshes/, but once input/triMeshes/triangle.obj exists, IPC will automatically load the obj and uses only its edges for contact.
Nevertheless, to input edges that are not from a surface mesh, we here provide a .seg file reference of a single segment: (input/segMeshes/edge.seg)
v 0 0 0 v 1 0 0 s 1 2
Here v specifies vertex coordinates, s specifies edges that are connecting 2 vertices, very similar to .obj format!
Even more crazy this script uses the same single triangle but only with its points. Here we also scale the point cloud 0.8x smaller to let the box hit the points. input/tutorialExamples/MCO/2cubesFall_rotateCO_points.txt:
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
- input/triMeshes/triangle.obj 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 angularVelocity 10 90 0
+ input/triMeshes/triangle.pt 0 1 0 0 0 0 0.8 0.8 0.8 angularVelocity 10 90 0
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0
zoom 0.3
The .pt file specifies the points, and here we are applying the same trick: there is actually no triangle.pt file under input/triMeshes/, but once input/triMeshes/triangle.obj exists, IPC will automatically load the obj and uses only its points for contact.
To input points that are not from a surface mesh, the .pt file can be created with only vertex coordinates lines of the .obj file.
For a simulated volumetric object, sometimes we script the motion of part of its vertices as Dirichlet boundary conditions. This can be simply realized by adding DBC commands to the end of each shape line just like how we assign object materials individually: (input/tutorialExamples/BC/2cubesFall_DBC.txt)
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
- input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
+ input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 DBC -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 0.1 1.1 0.1 -0.2 0 -0.2 0 0 0 DBC 0.9 -0.1 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.2 0 0.2 0 0 0
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0One can append as many DBC commands as needed after each shape line. Each DBC command is followed by 12 floating-point numbers, the first 6 form the relative bounding box coordinates of the bottom-left and top-right corner of the selection cuboid, and the last 6 forms the linear velocity followed by angular velocity represented as Euler angles in degree.
For example, the above script first selects all vertices in the left-back and move them with (-0.2, 0, -0.2) m/s, and then it selects the right-front vertices and moves them with (0.2, 0, 0.2) m/s:
As we see IPC is robust even when there is large deformation.
What’s different here from setting kinematic collision objects is that the unselected vertices are still degree-of-freedoms that are simulated. If one selects all vertices of an object by putting the selection box at e.g. (-0.1, -0.1, -0.1) - (1.1, 1.1, 1.1), and sets them with Dirichlet boundary conditions, it will be essentially identical to a kinematic collision object in IPC.
We can also add extra constant body forces to part of the vertices of simulated volumetric objects in addition to gravity. This can be similarly realized by adding NBC commands to the end of each shape line just like how we did for Dirichlet boundary conditions above: (input/tutorialExamples/BC/2cubesFall_NBC.txt)
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
- input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
+ input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 NBC -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 0.1 1.1 0.1 -50 0 -50 NBC 0.9 -0.1 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 50 0 50
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0One can append as many NBC commands as needed after each shape line. Each NBC command is followed by 9 floating-point numbers, the first 6 form the relative bounding box coordinates of the bottom-left and top-right corner of the selection cuboid, and the last 3 form the linear acceleration in the unit of m/s^2. Here torque is not supported as it is node position-dependent and so more complicated, which is also not usually used as Neumann boundary conditions.
Similar to the configuration in our Dirichlet example, the above script first selects all vertices in the left-back and drags them with an extra acceleration of (-50, 0, -50) m/s^2, and then it selects the right-front vertices and moves them with an extra acceleration of (50, 0, 50) m/s^2:
Unlike Dirichlet boundary conditions, here the Neumann boundary condition does not directly affect the vertical motion of the object, and it elongates the object only to a static state but not further.
It is also possible to start and stop boundary conditions at a specific time. This can be done by appending the DBC or NBC commands with a number for the start and end time: (input/tutorialExamples/BC/2cubesFall_DBC_timeRange.txt)
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 \
- DBC -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 0.1 1.1 0.1 -0.2 0.0 -0.2 0 0 0 \
- DBC 0.9 -0.1 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.2 0.0 0.2 0 0 0
+ DBC -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 0.1 1.1 0.1 -0.2 0.0 -0.2 0 0 0 0.0 2.5 \
+ DBC -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 0.1 1.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0 2.5 \
+ DBC 0.9 -0.1 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0 0.0 2.5 \
+ DBC 0.9 -0.1 0.9 1.1 1.1 1.1 0.2 0.0 0.2 0 0 0 2.5
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0After the required parameters to the DBC or NBC command, the next numbers are when to start the BC and when to end the BC. By default, the BC is applied from time t=0 to infinity. The end time can be omitted and will default to infinity:
The ways of setting kinematic collision object motion described earlier so far support just simple translations or rotations. To support more complex scripting of kinematic collision objects, IPC allows use of input mesh file sequences.
For example, we can specify a folder path to the kinematic collision objects: (input/tutorialExamples/advanced/2cubesFall_rotateCO_meshSeq.txt)
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
- input/triMeshes/triangle.seg 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 angularVelocity 10 90 0
+ input/triMeshes/triangle.seg 0 1 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 meshSeq input/segMeshes/sequence
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0
zoom 0.3In the specified folder input/segMeshes/sequence we provide the mesh files (here .seg, or .obj that can be automatically transformed by IPC) of the triangle wire in each frame as n.seg or n.obj, where n is the number of the frame. Here we simply use the mesh output of our triangle wire kinematic collision object simulation, and we are able to reproduce that simulation by loading the triangle wire mesh sequence files! Note that the input sequence must maintain the correct vertex correspondence to the one specified in the shapes block.
To initialize "attached" configurations, IPC requires a tiny positive gap as it does not support the 0-distance configurations.
The following script sets the upper box in the hello world example right above the lower one: (input/tutorialExamples/advanced/2cubesFall_attach.txt)
shapes input 2
- input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
+ input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 2.001 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
selfFric 0.1
ground 0.1 0
Note the initial gap here is barely visible. In our experience we can set IPC’s contact gap as small as practically needed; i.e., even small enough to fool the ray intersection checks in rendering algorithms. Thus rendering of transparent objects with IPC's small gaps can even have artifacts for valid non-intersecting configurations of the contact surfaces (so, for example, to render the IPC “squeeze out” example, we manually set offsets in the renderer despite having physically correct non-intersecting shapes). Similarly, no two objects can have 0-distance separation : ); even atoms are at distance from each other.
Along with implicit Euler, IPC currently supports implicit Newmark time integration. Other time integrators will be added soon. Implicit Newmark can be applied for improved energy preservation and control. To change the time integrator we can simply set the time integration method.
For example, the following script uses timeIntegration keyword to set Newmark (NM) to be the time integrator for the stiffer boxes scene without friction. By default, timeIntegration is set to BE (backward Euler). input/tutorialExamples/advanced/2cubesFall_NM.txt:
shapes input 2
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
input/tetMeshes/cube.msh 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1
ground 0 0
stiffness 1e6 0.4
time 5 0.005
+ timeIntegration NM
+ dampingRatio 0.1Here we also enable lagged Rayleigh damping using dampingRatio. Damping can be useful both for predictive or realistic simulation control of damping and also to extend the effective stability of the underlying Newmark time integration method. The number (say x) followed by dampingRatio is a relative parameter for the damping stiffness. The absolute damping stiffness will be set to 0.75 x dt^3, where if x=1, the beginning of time step Newmark incremental potential Hessian (with damping term) will be equal to that of implicit Euler. This provides a starting basis for intuitively setting damping stiffness. To alternately directly set damping stiffness use the keyword dampingStiff.
Here in this demo note that we used a smaller time step size at 0.005s as this is better for the stability of Newmark integration.
| Newmark, dampingRatio 0.1 | Newmark, dampingRatio 0.2 |
|---|---|
 |
 |
| Newmark, dampingRatio 0.4 | Backward Euler |
 |
 |
Time integration accuracy determines how accurate the dynamic time step solve is satisfied. To set the requested time integration accuracy, we can use the tol keyword to set Newton tolerance on the infinity norm of the Newton increment in the velocity unit (scaled with bounding box size).
By default, IPC uses
tol 1 1e-2
where the number following tol is the number of tolerances provided, here we provide 1 tolerance which is 1e-2. This will be set to all time-steps where, with a bounding box diagonal length l, the solver will stop once the current Newton increment cannot change any nodal velocity larger than 1e-2l m/s even if a full step is taken.
For experimentation, if multiple tolerances are provided, IPC will apply them in sequence to different time steps. When the time step number exceeds the number of tolerances provided, IPC will use the last provided tolerance for those frames.
In our experiments, 1e-2 is a relatively large tolerance that consistently provides visually good results without artifacts like early stopping or jittering. We’ve also tested IPC convergence to time-integration accuracies down to 1e-6. These enable improved accuracy for specific applications, but note that compute costs can then likewise also be more expensive.
There are 3 additional accuracies for IPC. Each controls a contact accuracy in IPC: the distance (dHat) that IPC sees objects as touching/attaching to exert contact forces; the relative tangent velocity (epsv) determining where IPC sees the touching objects as not sliding and so exerts static friction forces; and the maximum amount of friction iterations (fricIterAmt) that IPC updates friction tangent and normal forces.
By default IPC uses
dHat 1e-3 epsv 1e-3 fricIterAmt 1
Similar to Newton tolerance above, dHat and epsv are both scaled on bounding box size l, which means by default when objects are at a distance smaller than 1e-3l m there exists contact forces, and 2 attached objects with smaller than 1e-3l m/s relative tangent velocity will have static friction forces.
The default setting provides a good trade-off between accuracy and efficiency, where there are no visible gaps, no obvious sliding artifacts, or friction force in inaccurate directions. The roller examples and hitting card house examples are all running with this default setting. We’ve tested dHat down to 5e-8 (Masonry arch example), epsv down to 1e-5 (stable card house example), and fricIterAmt set to 0 (until tangent operator and normal force converges) to obtain even more accurate results. Note that IPC does not guarantee convergence for fricIterAmt 0, in practice for more accurate friction in large deformation or high-speed impact scenes, fricIterAmt at 2~4 so far appears generally sufficient.
For codimensional collision objects (including closed surfaces), one can directly specify the path to their own mesh files (.obj, .seg, or .pt) in the script to use it.
For the simulated objects that are tetrahedral meshes, IPC supports MSH files. IPC supports both ASCII and binary encoded version 2.2 and 4.1 files through the use of MshIO. IPC also supports ASCII version 4.0 MSH files via a custom reader and writer (IglUtils::readTetMesh_msh4() and IglUtils::saveTetMesh_msh4() in Utils/IglUtils.cpp).
If one has a watertight surface mesh, we provide a convenient interface to tetrahedralize the mesh with Tetgen: In the root directory, run command
./src/Projects/MeshProcessing/meshprocessing 0 path_to_input_triMesh.obj 3 1e10 0
Here the last 2 arguments are the maximum allowed tetrahedral element volume, and whether to insert more points on the surface for better-shaped elements (0 means “do not insert”).
The output will be path_to_input_triMesh.msh in the same folder as the input obj file, and the output .msh file is ready to be used by IPC.
IPC saves status files at the end of each time step. These files encode the vertex position, velocities, and accelerations as well as the time step number. You can use these files to resume and/or continue the simulation. To do this add the following line to the config script:
restart <path/to/status>
where <path/to/status> is the path to the output status file (either absolute or relative to the input config scripts path).
Above are all settings we’ve explored to design IPC examples. We provide the scripts of all IPC examples in input/paperExamples and input/otherExamples for reference. Here note that these scripts also apply a script command that utilizes different C++ implementations for setting boundary conditions and/or collision objects together with additional commands that are not covered in this introduction. These are essentially not all that different from setting them via the scripting files introduced above. Please see our README for a complete description of all script setting options currently available.
It is likely that the settings covered in this document still cannot fullfill some more complex needs. In such cases the best solution is probably to take full control by modifying C++ source codes. Config.cpp and AnimScripter.cpp are the 2 main classes where we process simulation settings, TimeStepper/Optimizer.cpp is where the core simulation algorithm is implemented, and main.cpp contains the entry of the program.
Last but not least, you are always welcome to post Github issues if anything is still unclear!